CENTRAL ASIA, RUSSIAN ROLE IN

The region of Central Asia is generally defined as the geopolitical space between Russia, Europe,China, and the Indian subcontinent. Since thedissolution of the Soviet Union, the term generally refers to the five republics ofKazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Turkmenistan,Kyrgyzstan, andTajikistan;Afghanistanis sometimes included as well. The region is alternatively called Middle Asia or Inner Eurasia, though these terms tend to be more inclusive and may include parts ofIranand China, as well asMongolia.

Russia began to expand into the region more than 300 years ago, the result of treaties signed with theKazakhs, who sought protection from marauding bands of Mongolic Dzungars. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, theRomanovsexpanded southward, conquering the old Silk Road cities of Samarkand, Khiva, Bukhara, and Kokand. Fearful of Russian encroachment in South Asia,Great Britainexpanded its presence in the region, triggering the century-long contest between the two empires known as the “Great Game” or “Tournament of Shadows.” During the Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks were able to subdue nationalist movements in Central Asia, though a decade-longIslamistinsurgency known as the Basmachi Rebellion prevented Moscow from exerting complete sovereignty over the region.

During the Soviet period, Central Asia remained relatively unknown to the outside world, and transborder contacts with neighboring China and Afghanistan were significantly curtailed.Moscow subsidized the development ofindustry,agriculture, andeducationthroughout the region, resulting in precipitous increases in the standard of living combined with the destruction of traditionalcultureand economic systems. Militarization of the region increased dramatically with theSoviet-Afghan War, particularly in Uzbekistan, which served as the staging ground for military activity against theUnited States–backed mujahideen.

With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, theunion republicsof Central Asia reluctantly embraced independence. Long dependent on subsidies from Moscow, the comparatively poor states remained economically tied to the new Russian Federation. However, over the next few years, exploitation of hydrocarbons and the development of new relations with Iran, the United States, and European nations fomented an increased self-sufficiency among the five republics. However, control of transshipment routes, the presence of millions ofethnic Russiansin the republics, and theTajik Civil Warallowed Russia to continue to exert a substantial influence over the region. To this day, Russian border control units continue to patrol Tajikistan’s frontier with Afghanistan, interdictingnarcoticsand other contraband.

Boris Yeltsinand the five postindependence presidents found common cause in their opposition to Islamist movements, allowing for sustained political cooperation on a number of fronts including the establishment of the Shanghai Five (later theShanghai Cooperation Organizationor SCO). All the republics joined theCommonwealth of Independent States, though Uzbekistan, under Islam Karimov, generally resented what it saw as Russian neo-imperialism in the region, and went as far as to temporarily join the anti-RussianGUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development. Turkmenistan, which has a stated policy of neutrality, opted out of all security-related organizations, including the SCO and theCollective Security Treaty Organization.

The ascent ofVladimir Putinsignificantly changed the relationship between Russia and the Central Asian republics. Shortly after theSeptember 11 attacks, Putin gave a green light to a U.S. military presence in the region, resulting in the establishment of bases in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. However, as the result of the U.S. invasion of Iraq, Putin’s attitude toward the Americans soured, and after Washington’s condemnation of events in Andijan, Uzbekistan, in 2005, the SCO moved that the United States set a timetable for removing all its troops from the region. The American base in Uzbekistan was closed within a matter of months, and, shortly afterBarack Obamaassumed the presidency, Kyrgyzstan demanded that the United States close its facilities at Manas, though a subsequent plan allowed Washington to maintain a lessened presence at the site. As a result, Russia has reassumed its position as the sole great power in the region.

See alsoForeign relations; Near abroad.