HEIMSKRINGLA

Heimskringla: translation

(The Disk of the World)

bySnorri Sturluson

(ca. 1235)

Heimskringlais a vast compilation of Old Icelandic SAGAS concerning the kings of Norway, from their beginnings in myth and legend and the advent of King Harald Fairhair around 850 through the death of King Eystein in 1177, some 50 years before SNORRI STURLUSON began his work on the text. Snorri, Iceland’s most important medieval writer, was also the author of the PROSE EDDA (a kind of handbook of Norse mythology and SKALDIC POETRY), and perhaps ofEGIL’S SAGA(one of the most admired of Icelandic family sagas concerning a skaldic poet who may have been Snorri’s ancestor). Snorri, a powerful chieftain and poet himself, lawspeaker of the Icelandic Althing and the wealthiest man in Iceland during his prime, ends his history of the kings of Norway a generation before the Norwegian king with whom he himself was acquainted— Hakon Hakonarson, who likely ordered Snorri’s murder in 1241.

The titleHeimskringlais not Snorri’s but was given to the text by an early editor, who simply derived it from the first two words of the manuscript,kringla heims(“the circular world”). The collection begins withYnglinga Saga, which traces the descent of the Norwegian kings back to Odin himself. After this mythic beginning, Snorri includes 15 more sagas devoted to the Norwegian kings Halfdan the Black; Harald Harfager (Harald Fairhair); Hakon the Good; Harald Grafeld and Earl Hakon, son of Sigurd (in a single saga); Olaf Trygvason; Olaf Haraldson (St. Olaf); Magnus the Good;Harald Hardrade;Olaf Kyrre;Magnus Barefoot; Sigurd the Crusader (and his brothers Eystein and Olaf); Magnus the Blind and Harald Gille (in a single saga); the sons of Harald (Sigurd, Inge, and Eystein, in a single saga); Hakon Herdebreid (Hakon the Broad-shouldered); and Magnus Erlingson.It is possible that Snorri’s compilation owes something to previous histories of Norwegian and Danish kings—the relatively brief Latin textHistoria NorwegiæandSaxonis Gesta Danorum— Saxo’s significant Latin history of the Danes. Like Snorri, the authors of these texts traced the ancestry of the Scandinavian monarchs to Norse pagan gods. However, there is no evidence that Snorri was aware of or had read these texts. The sagas may be read as fascinating and sometimes romantic historical narratives. One of the most entertaining is theSaga of Harald Hardrade, who travels to Constantinople and dies in battle against King Harold of England shortly before the Norman Conquest. But more than simple tales of adventure, the sagas ofHeimskringlaare composed with certain common thematic concerns. Snorri’s focus on the history of Norwegian kings was not disinterested: As a major participant in the political turmoil that characterized his age (the “Sturlung Age” in Iceland, known for its widespread lawlessness and civil unrest), Snorri was aware of the impending annexation of Iceland by the Norwegian crown, an act deemed necessary to “pacify” the country and that indeed took place in 1262, bringing to an end four centuries of Icelandic independence. In hisHeimskringla, Snorri contemplates the positive and negative aspects of Norwegian kingship. The political unity and national identity it brought to Norway are clear benefits of the monarchy. However, the thirst for power and the suppression of personal liberties were common destructive characteristics of the kings, and were the forces that compelled Iceland’s pioneer settlers to leave Norway in the first place. Thus one of the most famous passages in theHeimskringlais in theSaga of Saint Olaf, where, in a speech before his fellow nobles, the petty chieftain Hroerek warns them against offering the kingdom to Olaf. Reviewing Norwegian history, he argues that every king they have had (with the exception of Hakon the Good) was so concerned with consolidating his own power that the Norwegians themselves suffered. Hroerek is later proven correct when Olaf has him blinded and kills off some of the other petty kings who object to his power. The tale seems an illustration of Snorri’s basic theme. Another impressive characteristic of Snorri’s text is his scrupulous standard of historical veracity, so unusual for his time. He tried to find trustworthy eyewitness accounts, and depended a good deal on theÍslendingabók(The Book of the Icelanders), the first vernacular history of Iceland up to the year 1120, written by the exceptionally reliable Ari Thorgilsson the Learned. Snorri also relied very heavily on skaldic poems: The skalds were court poets for the various kings, and wrote verse commemorating significant events of the kings’ reigns. Skalds were often present at battles, and since excessive flattery was not characteristic of skaldic poetry (except as satire), the poems that survived, and that he included in the texts of the sagas,were trustworthy sources for Snorri’s research.

TheSaga of Saint Olafwas the first of Snorri’s kings’ sagas, and ultimately forms the centerpiece ofHeimskringla. In the case of Olaf, Snorri had a vast amount of legendary material to sift through concerning the king’s biography. Previous treatments of Olaf ’s life had been hagiographical—essentially SAINTS’ LIVES—that depicted the king as saintly from his early days on. But Snorri knew that Olaf was much more complex, and depicts him, more accurately, as a vindictive and ambitious monarch who used Christianity as a means to achieve his goal of power. In Snorri’s tale, Olaf only becomes saintly—ethically and spiritually—once he has been defeated and lives in exile in Russia, and particularly when he suffers his final defeat in battle. Although scholars differ as to how accurate Snorri’s narratives are, the sagas still provide one of the most important sources for early Norse history. Snorri’s text is remarkable for its objectivity, for the psychological realism of its characters, and the plausible cause-effect relationships of its events as Snorri presents them.

■ Bagge, Sverre.Society and Politics in Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.

■ ———.“From Sagas to Society: The Case ofHeimskringla.” InFrom Sagas to Society: Comparative Approaches to Early Iceland, edited by Gisli Palsson, 61–75. Enfield Lock, U.K.: Hisarlik, 1992.

■ Bermann, Melissa A. “Egil’s SagaandHeimskringla,”Scandinavian Studies54 (1982): 21–50.

■ Carroll, Joseph. “TheProse Edda, theHeimskringla, andBeowulf: Mythical, Legendary, and Historical Dialogues,”Geardagum: Essays in Old and Middle English Literature18 (1997): 15–38.

■ Ciklamini, Marlene. “The Folktale inHeimskringla,”Folklore90 (1979): 204–216.

■ ———.Snorri Sturluson. Boston: Twayne, 1978.

■ Kuhn, Hans. “Fabulous Childhoods, Adventures, Incidents: Folktale Patterns within the Saga Structure ofHeimskringla,”Journal of Folktale Studies41 (2000): 76–86.

■ Sturluson, Snorri.Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway. Translated by Lee Hollander. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964.