DRUMS AND DRUMMING

Rhythmicsounds and movements are commonplace in shamanicperformance. InMirceaEliade’s construction of shamanism as “the techniques ofecstasy,” the creation of rhythm is the primary technique that induces ecstasy or thealteredstates of consciousnessthat he claims define shamanism. It is certainly true that shamans in many cultures make use of drums and other instruments, along withchantingand movements. Drums may not only be decorated withcosmologicalsymbols but also themselves represent the cosmos and its inhabitants. In addition to their use in achievingtrancesor otheraltered states of consciousness, drums might also be aids indivinationor injourneyingtootherworldlocations. Nonetheless, considerable variations exist in the use of drums. SomeSiberianshamans use their drums to create not rhythmic but arrhythmic noise. Manyneo-shamansfollowingMichael Harnertypically utilize a particular drum rhythm that is claimed to induce the desired “shamanic state of consciousness,” but claimants disagree on what that rhythm should be (3–4 beats per second or 4–7 beats per second are common).Techno-shamanicor “rave” “trance dances” often follow the same pattern. At the interface of indigenous and Western practitioners, and in an ironic postcolonial twist, Harner’sFoundation for Shamanic Studieshas introduced its own idiosyncratic drumming technique to communities where traditional practices have been lost (for example, in parts of post-Soviet Russia) and the drum may never have been used.