VIRTUES AND VICES

Virtues and vices are essential concepts of moral philosophy as they represent the strengths and weaknesses of humanity. Among the main themes in the writings ofPlato, Aristotle, and other ancient philosophers is the attainment of a virtuous existence through the rejection of pleasure. The fathers of Christianity also wrote extensively on virtues and vices, though these were not standardized until about the 10th or 11th centuries. The virtues are divided into two groups. The first, the Cardinal Virtues, derive from Plato'sRepublicand consist of temperance, prudence, justice, and fortitude. The second, the Theological Virtues, are faith, hope, and charity. These are listed in the Bible, in I Corinthians 13:13.The vices, or Seven Deadly Sins, are pride, envy, wrath, sloth, avarice, gluttony, and lust. Virtues and vices often appear in art.Giottoincluded their personifications in the lower tier of theArena Chapel frescoesin Padua (1305). InAndrea Mantegna'sExpulsion of the Vices from the Garden of Virtue(1497; Paris, Louvre),Minervarids the garden of evil. The Virtues are included in the lower panels ofAndrea Pisano's bronze doors for theBaptistery of Florence(1330-1334) and inJacopo della Quercia'sFonte Gaiain Perugia (1414-1419). The Vices appear inHieronymus Bosch'sHay WainTriptych(c. 1490-1495; ElEscorial, Monasterio de San Lorenzo) and they are the main subject of hisSeven Deadly Sinstabletop (c. 1475) at the Madrid Prado Museum.